Restoring American River Spring-Run Chinook Salmon

For decades, the possibility of restoring spring-run Chinook salmon in the American River has been ignored.  With recent changes to the Nimbus Hatchery fish ladder and federal and state mandates to focus more on the recovery of Central Valley spring-run Chinook, it is time to recover the American River’s spring-run salmon.

The American River spring-run were never really lost.  The river has always had modest numbers of these iconic salmon that attracted fishermen and even guides each spring to the lower river below Nimbus Dam.  It wasn’t much of a secret.  It was more common knowledge and a nice complement to spring shad and steelhead fishing.  These spring-run salmon were generally believed to be strays from other Sacramento River spring-run streams and the Feather River Fish Hatchery.

The spring-run hung around all summer waiting to spawn.  They concentrated at the outlet of Nimbus Dam.  In late summer, CDFW would install the hatchery rack to force returning fall-run salmon into the old Nimbus Hatchery ladder.  A mixture of spring-run and early returning fall-run were usually trapped above the rack immediately below Nimbus Dam.  Most of these salmon died by the end of the fall spawning season without spawning.  In some years, thousands of carcasses would pile up on the upper side of the rack, a hundred yards below the dam outlet.  There was even a special carcass survey and tag return site designated for the rack site where “fall-backs” were counted and recorded in tag databases.

The “waste” of these salmon was a concern that played a part in the decade-long design and construction of the new hatchery fish ladder and retirement of the hatchery rack in 2022.

The end of the rack problem created a new problem: what to do with the early-arriving stray spring-run that collect below Nimbus Dam near the entrance to the new fish ladder.  These spring-run salmon must now either wait for the November opening of the new hatchery ladder or spawn in the river after it cools in November.

The new norm is to allowing them into the ladder in November and count and spawn them as fall-run.  The problem with this approach is that it creates a problem not unlike that which occurs at the Feather River Fish Hatchery – interbreeding of fall-run and spring-run.

I suggest CDFW and Reclamation change this strategy: operate the new ladder in spring to capture the stray spring-run to restore the once-prolific American River spring-run salmon population.  Adult spring run could be collected and sorted in the Nimbus Hatchery and then trucked up I-80 to the Middle Fork of the American River upstream of Folsom Reservoir, as the first stage of a trap-and-haul recovery project.  The second stage would be collecting-trapping juvenile salmon in the Middle Fork and bringing them back to the lower river for release.  Hopefully those released would begin to contribute to a new more genetically pure race of American River spring-run salmon.

A poor second choice would be for CDFW to separate the two American River runs like they now do at the Feather River Fish Hatchery.

Salmon Expectations from Wet Year 2023 and Above Normal Year 2024

After five critical drought years and only two wet years in the decade from 2013 through 2022, there is hope that Wet year 2023 and Above Normal year 2024 will help recover California salmon populations.  However, some salmon survival factors that were not improved and some that were made worse in these two years compared to previous wet years will limit salmon recovery from the 2020-2022 drought.

The 2020-2022 drought caused poor runs of adult salmon returning to spawn in 2022 and 2023 (and likely also in 2024).  Low spawner numbers contributed to low production of juvenile outmigrants to the ocean in 2023 and 2024, despite good in-river habitat conditions.

The poor production of juvenile salmon in brood years 2022-2024 will limit fisheries from 2024 to 2027.  Whether good river flows in the winter and spring of 2023 and 2024 lead to some recovery remains to be seen.

Negative Factors

There are a several factors that seriously limit salmon recovery in Wet and Above Normal years in California’s Central Valley.  If not addressed, these factors will result in an uncertain future with continuing poor salmon runs and fishery closures.

  1. Low Adults Returns from Poor Drought-Year Smolt Production

Brood years 2020 and 2021 smolt production to the ocean in drought years 2021 and 2022 was poor.  This poor production led to the lower-than-expected adult returns in 2023 and probably in 2024.  Despite a complete fishery closure in 2023 (fisheries generally harvest 50-70% of salmon brood year production), the 2023 salmon escapement to the rivers was poor (Figures 1 and 2).  The same patterns are likely to repeat in 2024.  In other words, two years of fishery closures may not be sufficient to mitigate the poor smolt production in drought years 2021 and 2022. The poor adult returns will compromise brood year 2023 and 2024 smolt production from low numbers of eggs spawned.  There were limited actions taken to increase smolt production in these drought-plagued brood years.  As a result, adult returns (escapement) are likely to remain depressed through 2027.

  1. Lower Sacramento River Flow and Water Temperatures

Another factor in the poor adult run up the Sacramento River in Wet year 2023 was unusually low flows (Figure 2) and higher water temperatures (Figure 3) in the lower Sacramento River and Bay-Delta during the summer-to-early-fall immigration period.  Adult salmon migrate into San Francisco Bay in summer and up the Sacramento River to spawning grounds in late summer for fall spawning.  Delta outflow to the Bay in summer-fall 2023 was lower than the most recent wet years (Figure 3).  Water temperatures of the summer outflow in the Sacramento River channel entering the Bay near Rio Vista were 70-75oF (Figure 4).  Such temperatures are highly stressful to the adult salmon, and adult salmon generally avoid them.  Water temperatures in San Pablo Bay (North Bay) and Suisun Bay (East Bay) reached 70oF or higher (Figure 5 and 6), especially during that portion of the monthly tidal cycle when the Delta drained into the Bay (during the full moon spring tides).  Ocean coastal water temperatures were also elevated (a condition termed the Blob) (Figures 6 and 7).

Water temperatures were also elevated through the summer in the lower Sacramento River upstream of the Delta (Wilkins Slough near Grimes, Figure 4), frequently exceeding 70oF from June through August.  The water quality standard for the lower Sacramento River in summer is water temperatures no higher than 68oF.  That standard was met in Wet water year 2011 (as required under the 2009 federal salmon biological opinion) but not in Wet years 2017, 2019, or 2023.

Lower-than-normal Wet-year river flows (Figure 8) and associated higher water temperatures (Figure 9) in spring of Wet year 2023 also stressed spring immigrating adult winter-run and spring-run salmon.  Such conditions also compromised salmon smolt production of brood year 2022 salmon by reducing late emigrating smolt (June) survival.  The standard of 20ºC/68ºF for the lower river above and below the mouth of the Feather River is designed to protect late migrating adult and smolt salmon.

  1. High Delta Exports

Salvage of juvenile salmon at Delta export pumps generally peaks from mid-May to mid-June, during peak smolt emigration of spring-run and fall-run Chinook salmon (Figure 10).  Often salvage numbers are higher in Wet years because of high production (survival of fry) in Wet years.  Export rates in water year 2023 were abnormally high for a Wet year (often near the 11,000 cfs maximum) during May (Figure 11).  In contrast, Wet year 2011 rates were only 2000-4000 cfs.  Historically allowed rates under D-1485 standards (pre-1995) were a maximum of 6,000 cfs in May and June.  Under the CVPIA and VAMP programs (1990s and 2000s), spring exports were also restricted to protect emigrating juvenile salmon.   That is no longer the case with weakened restrictions in the federal 2019 biological opinions governing recent Delta export operations.

Salmon salvage at export pumping facilities is generally considered an indicator of juvenile salmon being drawn into the central and southern Delta from the main channels of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers.  If salvage rates are high, then salmon losses throughout the Delta are likely high.  The risk of juvenile salmon being drawn into the south Delta (and lost) is highest at high export levels when south Delta exports dominate interior Delta hydrodynamics.

  1. Loss of Salmon in the Flood Bypasses in Wet Years

In winter-spring of wet years like 2023 and 2024, high flows in the Sacramento River channel spill into the Sutter and Yolo bypasses via five flood control overflow weirs (Moulton, Colusa, Tisdale, Fremont, and Sacramento weirs).1  Wet-year spills combined can account for over half the total river flow in the middle and lower Sacramento Valley.  In 2023 and 2024, flood spills to bypasses peaked from January to March (Fremont Weir and Yolo Bypass flows shown in Figure 13), during peak emigration of juvenile salmon of brood years 2022 and 2023 (Figure 14 and 15).  While the flooded bypasses are generally believed to be good juvenile salmon rearing habitat, the bypasses are often only flooded for a week or two and then drain quickly, as flood weir spills generally end abruptly.  The sudden draining strands millions of juvenile salmon in borrow pits, rice fields, duck ponds, and ditch networks – over 100,000 acres of flooded bypass habitat – habitats that warm significantly in April as the bypasses drain (Figure 16).

Adult spring-run and winter-run salmon also become stranded in winter-spring of Wet years if they are attracted to the bypass routes in their upstream migration toward the upper Sacramento River and tributary spawning grounds.  Upon reaching the weirs, the adult salmon are blocked by the concrete weirs from re-entering the river and continuing their journey upstream.  Of note is the recently constructed fish-passage notch in the Fremont Weir that continues flows to the Yolo Bypass from the Sacramento River after the weir spill ends (see March-April 2024 flows over 1000 cfs in Yolo Bypass in Figure 13).  The notch allows the adult salmon to pass through the Fremont Weir at lower (descending) river flows.  Such notches are planned in the other weirs but have not yet been built.

Positive Factors

There are some positive factors for salmon production in Wet year 2023 and Above Normal year 2024.  The higher river and Delta flows support the emigration of the juvenile salmon and keep the water temperatures down (Figure 14 and 15) before the river, bypasses, and Delta get too warm (Figure 16).  As a result, hatchery and wild smolt survival rates are higher in Wet years.  Wild and hatchery juvenile salmon need sufficient Delta outflows to reach the Bay in spring to finish off their development before heading into the ocean (Figure 17).

Summary and Conclusions

The past two winter-springs (2023 and 2024) ought to be major recovery years for Central Valley salmon.  However, ongoing problems continue to plague salmon recovery.  Production indices that guide fishery management options remain low (see 2024 Sacramento River ocean-salmon-index forecast in Figure 18).  It is going to take forecasts into the 500,000 to 1,000,000 range to bring back historic fisheries.  The only way to do that is rebuilding the stocks in Wet and Above Normal years when the production potential is higher.  That may be difficult in the years ahead, because we cannot control marine heat waves, ocean-derived Thiamine deficiencies, ocean foodwebs, and Sierra snowpacks.

For more on the future of California salmon fisheries see the following perspectives from NOAA Fisheries:

https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/looking-back-blob-chapter-2-marine-heat-wave-intensifies-completely-chart

https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/news/oceans-influence-salmon-plays-out-varied-returns-different-rivers-and-regions

https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/survivor-salmon-withstand-drought-and-ocean-warming-provide-lifeline-california

Figure 1. Fall Chinook escapement from 2004 to 2023. Major components of the fall Chinook population are upper Sacramento River including the mainstem and tributaries as well as the Battle Creek Hatchery, the Feather River and the Feather River Hatchery, and the American River and the Nimbus Hatchery. The red dashed line is the target escapement number to sustain a maximum sustained yield for ocean and river fisheries. Note the near record low run in the upper Sacramento River in 2023, generally attributed to poor smolt production in drought years 2021 and 2022. Higher Feather and American River escapement in 2023 is attributed to releases of hatchery smolts to the Bay and ocean during drought years 2021 and 2022 (practices not employed by the Upper Sacramento River’s Battle Creek Hatchery until 2024 on a large scale), as well as the fishery closure in 2023.

Figure 2. Escapement of other salmon runs to the Sacramento River Basin 2004-2023. Note near record low numbers except for winter run. Also, low numbers of jacks indicate 2024 adult runs are expected to be low for winter and spring run.

Figure 3. Delta outflow in summer of Wet year 2023 compared to three most recent Wet years.

Figure 4. Water temperatures in the Sacramento River system in 2023: BND is upper river and Bend Bridge near Red Bluff; WLK is middle river near Grimes; FPT (and 11447650) is north Delta near Freeport; EMM and RVB are Emmaton and Rio Vista Bridge in the western Delta; GRL is lower Feather River near Gridley; and AWP is lower American River at William Pond. Red line denotes stressful water temperature boundary – above 65ºF water temperatures are stressful to migrating adult salmon – adult salmon avoid water temperatures exceeding 72ºF.

Figure 5. Water temperature in north Bay near Martinez in summer 2023. Red circle depicts unusually high water temperature event attributable to high Bay air temperatures, high Delta outflow temperatures, and high coastal ocean temperatures.

Figure 6. Salinity and water temperature in central San Francisco Bay in summer 2023. The effect of the ocean “Blob” on the Bay is noted.

Figure 7. Coastal zone heat wave in summer 2023 (commonly referred to as the Blob). Source: NOAA.

Figure 8. May through July daily average flow of the Sacramento River at Freeport in the four most recent Wet years. Note trend toward lower flows in early summer. Lower Delta inflows and higher Delta exports in late spring and early summer hinder salmon recovery in Wet years.

Figure 9. May through July daily average water temperatures of the Sacramento River at Freeport in three recent Wet years. Note the lower water temperatures in 2011, corresponding to higher Delta inflows in 2011 shown in Figure 8.

Figure 10. Salvage of juvenile Chinook salmon at south Delta export facilities in spring 2023. Also shown are export rates and net flows in Old and Middle Rivers (OMR) that represent pull toward the export pumps. Note juvenile salmon are present through June under high exports of near 10,000 cfs (20,000 acre-ft per day).

Figure 11. Export rates in May in four most recent Wet years at federal Tracy Pumping Plant in south Delta. Note high May 2023 rates that reached 4250 cfs – the maximum allowed rate.

Figure 12. Export rates in May in four most recent Wet years at state Harvey Banks Pumping Plant in south Delta. Note May 2023 reached 6800 cfs – near the maximum allowed rate.

Figure 13. Flow rate (cfs) in Yolo Bypass canal below Fremont Weir in 2023 and 2024. Flow above 1000 cfs are generally associated with Fremont Weir spills from the Sacramento River. Note March-April 2024 flows provided in part by the new weir notch.

Figure 14. Lower Sacramento River juvenile salmon catch in screw traps at Knights Landing in winter-spring 2023. Note upper river emigration ceased about mid-May, indicating most of the juvenile salmon were in the Bay-Delta by mid-spring.

Figure 15. Lower Sacramento River juvenile salmon catch in screw traps at Knights Landing in winter-spring 2024.

Figure 16. Water temperature in mid Yolo Bypass in April 2023. Lethal water temperatures (70-75ºF) were reached by late April.

Figure 17. Juvenile salmon present in Bay trawl collections in wet year 2017 and below normal year 2018. Note low catch in 2018 is representative of low transport and survival of juvenile salmon to the Bay in drier years.

Figure 18. Sacramento River fall-run salmon ocean-abundance-index forecast (2024 is large black dot). Source: NOAA and PFMC.

  1. In high flow years the upper river also spills over natural streambanks into the Sutter/Butte Basin via Angel Slough.

Warm Water Temperature in lower Sacramento River in May 2024 Migrating Adult and Juvenile Salmon and Sturgeon Are Compromised in Spring of an Above Normal Year Following a Wet Year

In the third week of May 2024, the water temperatures in the lower Sacramento River recorded at Wilkins Slough increased to 72oF, well above the 68oF water quality standard (Figure 1). These warm water temperatures occurred in a wet spring of an Above Normal water year that is following a Wet water year.

The water temperature spike occurred between prescribed pulse flow releases from Shasta Dam in May (Figure 1).  Three pulse flows were prescribed this spring to promote and assist migration of juvenile salmon into the lower Sacramento River and the Delta.

After the second pulse in early May, the lower river flow was allowed to drop to a drought-level 5000 cfs, causing the high water temperatures.  Shasta Reservoir was virtually full at 4.3 MAF during all of May.

The Central Valley Basin Plan’s water quality objective for the lower Sacramento River is 68oF maximum “during periods when temperature increases will be detrimental to the fishery.” (P. 3-14).  Declining tributary inflows and increased mainstem water diversions contributed to the low flows.  Cooler American River and Feather River inflows to the Sacramento River below Wilkins Slough have kept north Delta water temperatures in the Sacramento River channel at Freeport and Rio Vista cooler at 64-67oF (Figure 2).

Many juvenile salmon emigrate to and through the Delta in spring (Figures 3-5).  High water temperatures in the lower Sacramento River lead to a drop-off in migration and increase in stress and predation, ultimately reducing survival and the numbers of smolts reaching the ocean.  Many spring-run and fall-run salmon smolts stay in the Delta through June and into July (Figures 6 and 7).  A majority of these smolts are wild salmon adapted to emigrate with the late spring snowmelt season; they rear in the Delta prior to entering the ocean.

Adult spring-run and winter-run salmon also migrate upstream through the Bay-Delta to upriver spawning areas in the spring.  They too benefit from the pulse flows, but also suffer stress from the high water temperatures on the journey upstream.  Adult Chinook salmon avoid migration through water whose temperature is at or above 72oF.

Green and white sturgeon also spawn in the spring in the lower Sacramento River from Red Bluff downstream to Verona (river miles 200 to 100).  Optimal water temperatures for spawning and early rearing are 50-65oF.  Water temperatures above 65oF are stressful and lead to poor survival.  Pulse flows stimulate spawning.  Peak water temperatures of 68-72oF in mid-May are considered detrimental to juveniles and adults, as well as lethal to sturgeon eggs and embryos.

The river conditions described above for mid-May 2024 are typical in drought years, but not in wet years.  The pulse flow certainly helps in the salmon and sturgeon migrations.  But lower Sacramento River base flows should not be allowed to fall below the 8,000-10,000 cfs needed to maintain water temperatures at or below 65oF to protect migrating adult and juvenile salmon and sturgeon.

Wet-year recoveries are essential given how poor conditions are in drought years.  The 2020-2022 drought led directly to the complete closure of salmon fisheries in 2023 and 2024 and more stringent requirements for the white sturgeon fishery in 2024.

Good migration conditions must be maintained in Wet years, including sequences of Wet and Above Normal water years, if there is to be any recovery from the multiyear droughts.

Figure 1. Daily-average Sacramento River flow and water temperature at Keswick Dam (RM 300) and Wilkins Slough (RM 120) in spring 2024. Note water temperature at Wilkins Slough (purple line) has exceeded the water quality standard of 68oF for the lower Sacramento River. Afternoon water temperatures on May 15 reached 72oF. Note the three pulse flows conducted by Reclamation (blue line) to support salmon migration helped to lower water temperatures. Note the sharp rise in water temperature in mid-May at Wilkins Slough after cessation of the second prescribed pulse flow, when streamflow dropped below pre-pulse flows.

Figure 2. Daily-average Sacramento River flow at Freeport (blue line) and water temperature a Freeport (green line) and Rio Vista (orange line) in spring 2024.

Figure 3. Rotary screw trap capture rate of juvenile salmon in 2024. Also shown is river flow rate and water temperature and turbidity.

Figure 4. Trawl Catch Index of juvenile salmon near Sacramento in the Sacramento River in Water Year 2024. Also shown is river flow rate and water temperature and turbidity.

Figure 5. Trawl Catch Index of juvenile salmon near Chipps Island in the eastern Suisun Bay in Water Year 2024. Also shown is river flow rate and water temperature and turbidity.

Figure 6. Salvage of juvenile salmon in water year 2023 at south Delta export pumping plants. Also shown are tagged hatchery salmon smolt collections by hatchery release groups and run type, and Delta flow and export rates.

Figure 7. Salvage of juvenile salmon in water year 2024 at south Delta export pumping plants. Also shown are tagged hatchery salmon smolt collections by hatchery release groups and run type, and Delta flow and export rates. Wild fry and smolt groups are noted; they can be segregated given the general lack of tagged hatchery smolts for the size group and time period.

Sacramento River Spring Pulse Flows – 2024

The US Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation), in cooperation with other state and federal agencies, conducted two short-term flow release experiments from Shasta Reservoir in the spring of 2024 to help juvenile salmon reach the ocean. 2024 is a relatively wet year, and it follows a very wet year in 2023 that left a lot of water in storage in Shasta and other Reclamation reservoirs.

The peak emigration to the ocean of wild and hatchery spring-run and fall-run salmon smolts usually occurs in the April-May time period, but may extend into June, especially in wetter years. Reclamation and its partners are developing pulse flow prescriptions for a flow management plan as part of the Action for the Long Term Operation of the Central Valley Project and State Water Project. “Spring pulse flows are designed to improve survival rates of outmigrating spring-run Chinook salmon smolts through the Sacramento River.” 1

The major sources of spring-run salmon smolts include Clear, Battle, Deer, Mill, and Butte creeks, and the Feather River Fish Hatchery. These smolts must pass through the lower Sacramento River, Delta, and Bay. The Feather River Fish Hatchery released its smolts into the lower Feather River in mid-March.

Pulse flows from Shasta Dam pass through Keswick Reservoir, a small regulating reservoir immediately downstream of Shasta Reservoir, and then into the Sacramento River. Pulse flows from Keswick Dam at river mile 300 of the Sacramento River also help move juvenile fall-run salmon downstream. Most Sacramento River fall-run salmon spawn and rear in the 20 miles of the river immediately downstream of Keswick Dam. Pulse flows help move juveniles from this reach downstream to reaches where the flow from tributary rivers and streams augments the flow in the mainstem Sacramento.

The goal of the pulse flows was to release extra flow (3000-6000 cfs) from Shasta reservoir to maintain 11,250 cfs below Keswick Dam for several days (see first pulse in Figure 1). With tributary inflow, river flow near Red Bluff 50 miles downstream was about 15,000 cfs during the first pulse. By the time the first pulse reached Wilkins Slough, nearly 200 miles downstream, the overall flow reached 16,000 cfs (Figure 2), after 3000-5000 cfs of agricultural diversions and multiple tributary inflows. At the end of the pulse flow period, Keswick Dam releases were dropped 6000 cfs (see Figure 1). By May 5, Sacramento River flow at Wilkins Slough had dropped about 8000 cfs. Declining tributary inflows and increased diversions also contributed to the lower Wilkins Slough flows following the pulse flow.

Without adequate flow, juvenile salmon have poor survival during their downstream journey. Low flows increase juvenile salmon’s vulnerability to predation. Low flows also contribute to stressful warm water temperatures. On May 1, 2024, water temperature in the river at Sacramento was below 65oF (18oC), with peak catch of juvenile salmon in the trawl survey (Figure 3). In contrast, in critically dry year 2022, May 1 water temperatures exceeded 65oF, with less than half the 2024 river flow (Figure 4). By late May 2022, water temperatures exceeded 70oF.

In conclusion, the releases of pulse flows from Shasta and Keswick reservoirs had very little signature in the lower Sacramento River due to intervening flows and diversions. The pulse flows were most beneficial in the upper river, where they made up a third to half the river flow. In a wet year like 2024, the benefit is somewhat limited by already high natural flows, although any additional pulse flows later this spring could be of greater benefit with expected declining natural flows and higher air temperatures. In contrast, pulse flows in dry years would provide much greater net potential benefit because of poor natural flows and limited reservoir storage.

The net benefits of pulse flows from Shasta Reservoir must also be considered, of course, in combination with Reclamation’s management of agricultural water deliveries and water stored in Shasta Reservoir for summer temperature management.

Figure 1. Streamflow in the upper Sacramento River below Keswick Dam (RM 300) April 19 through May 19, 2024. Note three-day flow pulses beginning April 23 and May 7.

Figure 2. Streamflow in the middle Sacramento River below Wilkins Slough (RM 120) April 19 through May 19, 2024. Note signatures of the three-day flow pulses show up on April 26 and May 10.

Figure 3. Juvenile salmon trawl catches and water conditions near Sacramento in winter-spring 2024. Note flow pulse in late April.

Figure 4. Juvenile salmon trawl catches and water conditions near Sacramento in winter-spring 2022. There were no flow pulses from Keswick Dam until irrigation releases commenced in May. Catch of juvenile salmon ceased once water temperatures reached or exceeded 70oF in late May.

Klamath River Salmon and Steelhead Recovery – The Future

After dam removal, the plan for recovering Klamath River salmon and steelhead is relatively straightforward.

Oregon is going to focus on watching to see how steelhead repopulate the upper watershed and on having a more active role in developing spring-run Chinook salmon populations.  Without an existing spring-run stock, Oregon will try establishing one by out-planting stock from California’s Trinity River Hatchery.

California will focus on recovery of existing lower river spring-run Chinook and fall-run Chinook, Coho, and steelhead stocks.  The new Fall Creek Hatchery will sustain the fall-run Chinook, Coho, and steelhead stocks formerly produced at the now-closed Iron Gate Hatchery.  Lower and middle river wild spring–run and fall-run Chinook, Coho, and mainstem and tributary steelhead stocks should expand with improved water quality and access to new habitat.  Historical tributaries offer great potential as does the spring-fed reach of the mainstem near the Oregon border.

In the decades ahead, as the populations and habitat recover, state, federal, tribal, and stakeholder groups will work together toward Klamath salmon and steelhead recovery.

There will be a need to coordinate management of the three H’s:  hatcheries, harvest, and habitat.  Existing hatchery programs should be converted to a single conservation hatchery program focused on salmon and steelhead recovery.  Such a program will need a new hatchery to support the recovery of Klamath spring-run Chinook, as in the San Joaquin River Restoration Program.  The Pacific Fishery Management Council and the two states will have to protect the recovering populations with strict harvest regulations.  Considerable funding will be needed to restore fire-damaged and drought-damaged watersheds, former reservoir footprints, mainstem and tributary fish passage, and spawning and rearing habitat.

Water supply management will remain contested and challenging.  Adequate funding, cooperative efforts, and adaptive management will bring success.